Reports and Effects of German Experts on Physical Education and Sports in the Early Republican Era in Turkey

After the proclamation of the Republic, major reforms took place in almost every field in the transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic of Turkey, that is, from a 600-year-old empire to a nation-state. This great transformation in the institutional structure and mentality put education at the focal point of the reforms. In order to change and increase the quality of education and training activities, many experts came to Turkey, conducted investigations and interviews, and prepared reports containing their recommendations. The main reference points for the founders of the republic were ‘health’, ‘youth’, ‘secularism’ and ‘equality between men and women’. ‘Physical education and sports’ were given importance on the way to reach the goal in these matters. The invited experts presented their works on physical education and sports. Within the scope of this study, the reports prepared by the German sports experts on physical education and sports were investigated, and all the reports reached were examined. In the analyzed reports, findings on physical education and sports were determined and solution suggestions were analyzed.


INTRODUCTION
The state, which broke off ties with the Ottoman Empire, which was the 'old' or 'sick man of Europe' as it was called in the 19th century, defined itself as 'young' and 'healthy' (Bozdoğan, 2015). The Republic aimed to establish a brand-new coalescent society of 'healthy, equal, egalitarian and harmonious' individuals (Kılınç, 2009). Accordingly, people with strong 'healthy and dynamic' bodies were needed as the foundations of a robust republic (Yumul, 2012). Physical education and sports occupied an important place in the public education system controlled by the state (Lüküslü & Dinçşahin, 2011) within the framework of the project to create a healthy and strong population, which was envisioned as a 'national cause' (Arpacı, 2015), and in line with the aim of the new national Turkish state to transform the entire social structure into that of a modern Western society.
On the basis of the idea that "nations were expected to train and reinforce not only their minds but also their bodies" (Bend-i mahsus, 1338, p. 4), the goal was to create a holistic education program. This goal was also mentioned by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the following statement (Türkmen, 2012, p. 231): It is the clear goal of our main policy to raise a virtuous, strong generation rising on the foundations of positive sciences, cherishing fine arts, ascending with improved qualities in training of not only the intellectual but also the physical capacity.
With this understanding, studies on education began before the republic was declared. It was decided to open a school for the training of physical education teachers at the First Delegation of Science meeting, where every aspect of the education topic was discussed (Arun, 1990;Sarı, 2013). The idea of inviting foreign experts from abroad was addressed in various articles, with emphasis on the necessity of demonstrating diligence in the selection of the experts to be invited among those who were expected to be specialized in their own fields (Asım, 1924;Cahid, 1924;Mütehassıslar bahsi, 1923). Shortly after the Republic was proclaimed, foreign experts were invited to create a system in line with their opinions. For this purpose, John Dewey (1924), an education expert, was invited and an education report was requested from him before the republic was even 1 year old (Ata, 2000;İnal, 2008). Experts from different fields were invited, in addition to those with a holistic view to the field of education, such as Dewey (Şahin, 1996). Sports scientists from Germany were invited to organize the field of physical education in the early republican period. As a result of these invitations, German sports scientists who stayed in Turkey for various periods prepared reports on physical education and sports.
German influence on the Turkish physical education and sports system began with von der Goltz 1 , who pioneered the establishment of Ottoman Power and Youth Associations 1 Von der Goltz, who founded Jungdeutschlandbund (Young German League) in 1911, argued that young people should be prepared physically and mentally for military service as wars gradually changed form, eventually becoming the (Osmanlı Güç ve Genç Dernekleri) in the last period of the Ottoman Empire, long before the arrival of German sports experts, and continued during the republican years. Herman Altrock and Carl Diem, recognized as the pioneers in the educational and managerial aspects of the sports system in Germany 2 , were invited to Turkey during the republican period and maintained their relations on a number of occasions. There have been no studies yet on physical education and sports recommendations, the reflections of this recommendation, applications, and the results of German sports scientists. With the aim of filling this gap in the literature, this research deals with the physical education and sports recommendations in the reports of German sports experts Carl Diem, Herbert Riedel and Aleks Abraham. In the reports and studies of the German sports scientists, they made suggestions in various dimensions, such as the acceleration of performance sports with its recreational dimension, implementation in schools with its physical education dimension and establishment of sport fields and stadiums. Therefore, these reports written, during the construction process of the young republic, contain important data in order to understand the German influence on the development of sports culture and tradition from the past to the present and at the point where it came.

Research Model
In this study, the historical research method was used, a method for studying historical facts with the stages of heuristics, source criticism, interpretation, and histography (Brundage, 2014, Mc Caffrey et al., 2012. A historical research model, which makes it possible to conceptualize, theorize, and examine the social factors of social change that cause a certain result, was used (Kaptan, 1991). Historical research was carried out through 5 stages, namely topic selection, source collection (heuristics), source criticism (verification), interpretation, and writing (historiography) (Brundage, 2014;Mc Caffrey et al., 2012).

Data Collection
In the design of this qualitative research model, literature review and document review methods were used for the data collection. The literature review method allows the identification and limiting of a specific problem, taking a historical point of view, and associating the present with past information. In addition to a thorough literature review, the expert reports were the primary sources of information (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). The data also were obtained by the document review method in this study. Document review has advantages in terms of quality, low cost, sample size, long-term analysis, lack of reactivity, individuality, and originality (Balcı, 2005). Accordingly, the document review made it possible for this study to take place within the limits of scientific analysis. mission of the entire nation over the time, and thus, entailing the nation to mobilize all of its physical and moral skills and resources (Ateş, 2012

Data Analysis
The data collected by the literature review and document review methods were evaluated by descriptive analysis. In descriptive analysis, concepts are summarized and interpreted within the framework of predetermined themes. The descriptive analysis method consists of four stages: creating a framework, processing the data according to that framework, defining the findings, and interpreting the findings (Sözbilir, 2009). The descriptive analysis method was used for the data analysis of this study. FINDINGS The reports written by the experts who were invited during the early Republican period were recorded in the archives in different formats and codes according to the places where they were presented, in this sense, it was only possible to reach some of them recently. Within the scope of this research, the reports of Carl Diem, Herbert Riedel, and Alex Abraham, who were prominent figures in the German sports community of the period, were reached with the literature review and document examination method. The content of the reports was examined and the suggestions presented were evaluated in accordance with the findings made, and the reflections of these suggestions in Turkish sports were again attempted to be put forward by scanning the period applications. In this part of the study, these reports and their reflections will be examined in turn. Physical education in the Carl Diem's report German sports scientist Carl Diem was invited to Turkey in 1933 to work on the establishment of a physical education organization in Turkey (DAB Beden ve gençlik, 1938). Carl Diem was welcomed by athletics trainer Aleks Abraham, water sports trainer Tegethoff, and swimming committee chairman Ekrem Rüştü Akömer at the Istanbul Sirkeci Train Station on September 16, 1933 (Spor mütehassısı geldi, 1933;. In the letter he wrote to Bolu Deputy Hasan Cemil before he came to Turkey (DAB Beden ve gençlik, 1938), Diem stated that he planned to start his duty with a general information trip to see the current situation of physical education and sports in Turkey. In this way, he would get an idea about to present recommendations to be implemented. Carl Diem prepared a comprehensive report on sports training and management after nearly two months of travel and investigations. The content of the report, consisting of educational recommendations, was quite detailed (DAB Türk sporu, 1933).
In his report, Diem started the first step of physical education with children aged 3-6 who do not have to go to school yet and go to kindergarten. Participation for children and their mothers would be voluntary and free of charge. It should be mandatory for municipalities to organize one-hour exercises twice a week for boys and girls under the supervision of appropriate teaching staff. Special groups should be arranged so that mothers can participate in these exercises, and movements and exercises should be done in the form of games so that mothers can enjoy moving. Exercises for children should include natural walking, jumping, throwing, balancing, pushing, pulling, climbing, and carrying exercises, and it should be preferred that these exercises are in the form of a game in order to maintain order.
Diem then took up primary schools, arguing that physical education lessons in primary school should be prominent in school life in order to have a place in life habits. Physical education should not be a boring exercise to be done in school, but a pleasure to be achieved with little effort. Physical education classes should be compatible with federation sports so that after school, sports can be a part of life.
According to Diem, physical education should not be seen as a subordinate of other fields, but rather as a major and independent educational tool for mental education, to be equated with other courses. For this reason, the position and salary of the physical education teacher had to be exactly the same as for teachers in other fields. The physical education teacher, like other teachers, should have received a scientific-based education. In his report, Diem also mentions that a special, rational scientific institution, a physical education, and sports college is necessary for the training of teachers. According to Diem, this institution had to be run by a modern highly educated specialist who was also a versatile athlete. Diem emphasized that this institution, which will train teachers, needs teachers who are experts in cultural sciences, medicine, pedagogy, citizenship and organizational knowledge, music, and dance for the basic branches of physical education. According to Diem, the teacher should not only be knowledgeable, but also have a strong-willed personality like a soldier.
The success of the student in the physical education course would be evaluated in each passing period and in the end-of-term report card. The physical education final exam should be combined with a special celebration or program at school, and all educators, members and parents of the school should attend. Achievements and leadership qualities in physical education should be rewarded and recorded in the students' honor books. In schools, at least one hour of physical education classes should have been compulsory every day when mental classes were held. A walk should be organized once a month. Students should be required to attend a three-week tent camp each year. Exemption from physical education lesson would be possible with a report issued by the school doctor and valid for a maximum of two months, and even in the case of exemption, the student must be present in the lesson to benefit from it.
Strengthening the organs through athletics, spine exercises and swimming, as well as expanding the chest and increasing elasticity, should be emphasized as the primary purpose of the physical education course. Training goals, such as muscle strengthening and endurance (instrumental physical education-wrestling-hiking) should come after this. Third, it is necessary to have the skills needed in games and life (climbing-rowing-shooting-military order forms-land exercises). Folk dances should be performed for relaxation, and competitions should be held to revive the physical education course.
Teachers should set an example by taking an honest stance towards the other class competing with their class during competitions. Teachers would be able to punish dishonest or inappropriate behaviors (loud shouting, fighting, lack of punctuality) in competitions with low marks. To maintain health, Diem stated that every school administrator should request a school doctor. According to Diem, this doctor should have additional training in physical development and attend physical education classes from time to time.
According to Diem, the physical education course should be given by teachers who are experts in their fields as much as possible in all schools. However, in small schools, this task could be fulfilled by classroom teachers who would be trained in special four-week courses. Hygiene education should be given periodically in the physical education classes, students should be accustomed to cleanliness by ensuring that they wash regularly in school showers. The lesson should be held in physical education clothes made of white and washable fabric under all conditions, male students should have their upper bodies bare in good weather, and female students should have their arms and legs exposed. The physical education teacher should also always teach in physical education attire.
In his report, Diem suggested that regular physical education is a moral obligation for every Turkish woman and man, which should be proclaimed as a state law. The structure proposed in the report for management of sports was based on a top-down hierarchical organizational model, which would function via a ministerial Sports Directorate run by the head of sports. The proposed organizational structure should consist of regional heads of sports under the presidency of the Head of Sports, and the district organization affiliated to the regional heads.
Diem listed thirteen sports branches in his report: General education, physical education, defense sports; light athletic sports, handball; wrestling, boxing; football; swimming; rowing; sailing; tennis; cycle sport; riding; shooting; gliding; mountain and ski sports. The head of sports would also be authorized to appoint the heads of sports branches to run the sports branches. Heads of sports branches would be empowered to establish the National Olympic Committee under the presidency of the head of sports if the sports branches were included in the Olympic program. The head of sports, branch managers, regional heads of sports branch would constitute the Sports High Council of the Turkish Sports Club, and one representative from each of the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Health would be authorized to attend the Council.
Achievement exams and sports organizations were emphasized by Diem as another topic for purposes such as disseminating and promoting the body culture, bringing versatile qualities to individuals and clubs, and creating models from successful athletes. In his report, Diem categorized such national events as annual events and quadrennial events. Among the annual events proposed in the report, the most notable ones were "Gazi Youth Celebrations" to be held all across the country on May 19, and the "Great Relay Run" to be held on May 19 in settlements with a population of over three thousand. In addition to those mentioned, five different sports events were also included in the list of proposed annual events. Among the quadrennial events proposed were the "Turkish National Games" to be held in Ankara, and award of the "Youth Badge of Honor for Boys and Girls", and the "Sports Badge of Honor for Men and Women". Diem also suggested that citizens with important contributions to the field of sports should be awarded a 'state badge of honor'.
He suggested that a "school of physical education" should be founded with the aim of closely following the developments around the globe. In addition to the proposed school of physical education, Diem also suggested that an organization similar to Jungdeutschlandbund should be founded, which would be titled the Gazi Youth Union. There would be a single curriculum that would be implemented within the organization, which consist of the following classes: running, jumping, shot put, gymnastics, swimming, shooting, order and dryland training exercises, hiking, annual camping and field trips, patriotism, and hygiene and cleanliness. Membership with the Gazi Youth Union, which would be organized in three different age groups, would be free of charge and the activities would be carried out two days a week. As for the members who were required to attend the school, the activities in the Gazi Youth Union would substitute the physical education classes in the school so that the curricula of associations would be balanced by the schools.
Sports clubs, another form of organization planned by Diem, would have to host sports activities such as general physical education, exercise and field sports, light athletics, games (football or handball or volleyball or basketball), and swimming, if possible. Diem, who suggested boxing, wrestling, and fencing in particular, proposed an autonomous status for the club administrations and required establishment of a club merely upon approval by the regional head of sports. Youth or sports clubs without official registration would be banned from activities, and clubs demonstrating inappropriate behavior and suffering from a decrease in the number of members would be optionally liquidated by the Sports Department upon request by the regional head of sports. The clubs would be managed by a board of directors consisting of five members, who would be elected among members of the club and approved by the sports department. Every respectable Turkish citizen over the age of 18 would have the right to establish a club and become a member of the club. Diem's system required a uniform structure of foundation and management for Turkish sports clubs, which would constitute the Turkish Sports Club and be bound by the legislation of the club. The clubs, interconnected like partners of the same management, would be expected to replace the feelings of competition that had persisted until then by shared feelings. Clubs would choose their own names, colors, and signs, and yet there would be a common dress code for all of the clubs, as proposed in the report. All of the members would be given a clubapproved sample ID card of the Turkish Sports Club; issuing custom cards would not be allowed. Each member would be obliged to pay the membership fee and contributions determined by the Turkish Sports Club. Part of the proceeds from this would be transferred to the Sports Directorate. The system proposed that the clubs could be given support, not only financially, but also in other ways; for example, maintenance works for sports fields could be undertaken by municipalities, and that, for the next stage, the clubs should be assisted with foundation of sports infrastructure facilities and completion of vocational training of the members. While the Sports Directorate would be expected to support the clubs in terms of tools and equipment, when required, through the regional sports equipment warehouse to be launched by the Directorate themselves, the clubs would also be able to cover within their own means, as a requirement of the institutionalization process, the expenses that would arise. According to Diem, the objective of sports clubs would be to contribute to the raising of an outstanding social and patriotic consciousness by paying due attention to the development of a physical education system that is healthy in all aspects. Turkish sports clubs would have the obligation to treat all citizens of the state on an equal basis, without discrimination, and show a true representation of the unity of the people. Each club would be obliged to pay due attention to the existence and protection of patriotism as well as provide an educational social environment.
Another institutional category proposed in Carl Diem's report for the social implementation and dissemination of physical education and sports was cultural associations. Members of the association would be expected to be over 30 years of age, and holding double membership in the cultural association would be allowed as well as in the case with the sports club. The goal of those associations, which would constitute the club, would be to promote physical activities so as to improve social and intellectual life that would prevent premature aging. Presentations, educational films, music, and multi-faceted non-competitive physical activities would serve as the means to achieve that goal. Members of cultural associations would be able to benefit from all of the sports facilities in their region, free of charge, and enjoy the services of all of the sports facilities of the club for a small fee. The associations would receive a fee determined by the Sports Department, part of which would be transferred to the Sports Directorate.
When the report was evaluated in general, it was seen that physical education was considered as a part of an integrated and complementary whole. Diem gave advice on the inclusion of sports in life starting in kindergarten, and on continuing it as a daily life habit after finishing school.

The effects of Diem's report on Turkish physical education and sports
The first obvious reflection of Diem's report in the government policies was in the manifesto declared by the Republican People's Party during their 4th convention held in 1935. With the following statements in article 50 of the manifesto, titled Youth Organization and Sports, Diem's suggestions were implemented, albeit partially (CHP Programı, 1935, p. 43): "It will be obligatory for everyone in schools, state institutions, private bodies, and factories to engage in physical training according to their age group. Fields will be provided and institutions will be launched as needed for sports activities and physical training. Local authorities and municipalities will be particularly engaged in the procurement of the fields".
The fact that the Turkish Training Community Alliance 3 (TICI), which was based on the existing club structure and management of sports, was superseded by Turkish Sports Association (TSK), a sports organization directly affiliated with the state, is one of the major reflections of Diem's report. Thereupon, sports activities, regarded as a 'national cause' in line with the view that the development and mass dissemination of sports activities carried out by clubs remained insufficient, were entirely left to the administration of the party-state structure (Akın, 2014;Çağlar, 1936). The Turkish Sports Association emerged as a new administrative system with the idea that mass participation was necessary to achieve the ultimate goals of physical culture policies, and the TICI would fail to organize Turkish sports on that scale. Consequently, with the influence of various dynamics, the General Directorate of Physical Education was established in 1938, shortly after the establishment of the TSK, under draft law numbered 3530, which was submitted, including Diem's proposals, to parliament so as to delegate sports management directly to the state.
In frame of the law, sports were transformed into an 'obligation' and membership in clubs was made compulsory for overall sports. An advisory board was established to manage physical education and sports affairs from a single center under the umbrella of the General Directorate of Physical Education. The law stipulated that each province would be declared as a physical education region, and a school of physical education would be opened in Ankara (3530 Sayılı, 1938); however, the necessities imposed by the impending World War prevented the opening of the school.
In addition to the law, a number of steps were taken to implement the recommendations of Diem in his report, in the frame of which training courses were opened (DAB Etimesgut'ta açılacak, 1941; Korkmaz & Bağırgan, 2019), the construction of sports facilities and fields and swimming pools was started in the provinces (DAB Vilayetlerdeki spor, 1936; DAB Türk spor, ty); and youth trips were organized (DAB Gençlerin doğuyu, 1936). However, the objectives aimed in the 'overall sports' movement, which was defined within the scope of the physical education law, numbered 3530, could not be achieved for a number of reasons, such as changing priorities due to the upcoming war, physical deficiencies regarding the infrastructure, the unavailability of trainers and coaches, the failure in fully informing the enforcing parties about the objectives, and consequently, the exclusion of stakeholders from the enforcement.
In regard the General Directorate of Physical Education (Fişek, 1983), which directed sports towards paramilitary purposes under the provisions of the law on the physical training obligation enacted in 1938, Diem wrote in his book titled 'Weltgeschichte des Sports und der Liebeserziehung', in 1960, that Colonel Cemal Gökdağ, who was educated in Berlin, was appointed as the head of the institution, and was later substituted by Nizamettin Kırşan; however, Cemal Gökdağ was never appointed as the manager, and Nizamettin Kırşan acted as the general manager between 1956 and 1957 (Diem, 1960;Genel müdürler, ty). The celebration of the physical training festival, initiated by Selim Sırrı Tarcan, as the national youth holiday on May 19 to pay tribute to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who landed in Samsun on May 19, 1919, was described by Diem in his book as the zenith of the sports life (Diem, 1960). Alex Abraham (1886-1971, who worked in Turkey between 1928 and 1935, also coached the national athletics team during this time (Yıldız, 2020). Having the opportunity to observe Turkish sports during his time in Turkey, Abraham also prepared a report (DAB Türk Spor, ty). Although no date was specified in the report presented by Abraham in the state archive records, it was noted that the period of education in the school of physical training was 3 years, which proved that the report was written after 1933, and the emphasis on recognition of Anatolia in terms of sports before the Berlin Olympics revealed that it was written before 1936.

Physical education and sports in the Aleks Abraham's report
According to Abraham, if a nation wants to train strong athletes, it should first associate its countrymen with sports. He stated that there were training zones in the big cities of Turkey, but the athletes could not be trained because there were not sports trainers in every zone. According to Abraham, the expert, who will be the trainer of one of the sports branches, will be able to arouse interest in sports only in a few people in Anatolia, who are talented in that branch. Abraham stated that a contemporary sports trainer who understands many branches, such as gymnastics, athletics, swimming, mountaineering, skiing, and football, can create a change among the countrymen and arouse interest in sports. Mentioning that this sports trainer can organize sports festivals, he recommended that these sports festivals be held under the supervision of the governors, with assistance from the political party and community centers.
He stated that if a modern sports trainer works in every province, a bright sports organization will be obtained. He emphasized that this sports trainer should train young people in his region as sports trainers for clubs. Abraham mentioned that this trainer can be a sports organizer among the schools, clubs, and family, since Anatolia needs not only experts who will coach and train in one sport branch, but also sports trainers who understand several sports branches.
Abraham mentioned that in order to create strong Turkish national teams, it is necessary to establish a sports organization with the permanent activities of sports trainers, while experts stay in the provinces for a few days to inspect and give lessons. He stated that the expert can achieve success as a result of the pre-establishment of the sports organization by the provincial sports trainer, and that it is completely useless for an expert to work in Anatolia without this preparatory activity of the provincial sports trainer. After this arrangement and training, the expert should select the athletes from the provinces who are capable of entering the national team. Abraham suggested organizing a special course in a suitable city in Anatolia after the talented ones are selected.
Apart from these, Abraham suggested that a physical education seminar should be opened by experts and stated that every province could send a few athletes who have talent about sports coaching. He stated that these students could stay in school for one year and practice and learn all of the sports branches and that these trainers could be used as sports trainers in their hometowns. Abraham emphasized that it is very important for the Anatolian people to train sports trainers with a one-year seminar in order not to be left without an instructor, since full education at the High School of Physical Education takes 3 years.
Abraham emphasized that the Anatolian people were used to movie screenings and that these movie screenings were the only entertainment for many Anatolian cities. Therefore, he stated that good sports movies will arouse great interest, not only in youth, but also in adults. Since scientific sports movements can be shown very clearly in sports movies, Abraham stated that every athlete has the opportunity to learn something from the movie, emphasizing that movie screening can be used as a good teaching method.
In addition to this report, Abraham submitted a report to the relevant federation about winter sports and Uludağ Uludağ kış, 1933). According to Abraham, skiing gained importance as a winter sport in Europe. In addition, skiing under the sun and in the fresh mountain air strengthens the body and gives health in a way that no other sport can provide. Abraham stated that there are no plateaus as long and wide as they are on Uludağ, at an altitude of 2000-2550 meters, and there is snow from January to May. In fact, according to Abraham, it is possible to ski every week from December to March in open fields covered with snow at an altitude of 600 meters close to Bursa.
According to Abraham (Türkiye'de kış, 1933;Uludağ kış, 1933), Uludağ should be a place where students and their teachers will travel every winter vacation. However, for this, first, a building should be built to accommodate them at the junction of the Uludağ road and the highway, which is 20 kilometers away from Bursa, and at a height of approximately 1200 meters. Since this place is very suitable for ski courses, every novice skier can learn to ski by staying here for a few days. The 13-kilometer road from this building to the Uludağ hotel, at an altitude of 2000 meters, must be skied. Since the motorway cannot be traveled as long as it is covered with snow, this road must be marked with stakes. This ski path to the hotel can be shortened by passing through the forest and should be properly marked. In Bursa, the building to be built at the road junction and the Uludağ hotel should be connected by telephone. Permanent guards who can help and know how to ski should be placed in the building to be built and at the Uludağ hotel. Skiing equipment should be made and supplied at cheap prices.

The effects of Abraham's reports on Turkish physical education and sports
It was seen that Turkey was trying to implement the suggestions that Abraham presented in his report during his time in Turkey. We saw from the newspaper reports that he went on a trip to Anatolia for the propaganda of the physical training film (Aleksi Abraham'ın, 1935). Abraham also contributed to the spread of physical education and sports with his newspaper and magazine articles (Abraham, 1931;Spor: Herr Abraham'ın, 1933;Efe, 1935).
As was seen from various news, Abraham's suggestion regarding sports films was implemented (Güzel bir, 1935;Spor filimi, 1935). It was reported in the news, titled 'Spor filimi gösterildi (Sports film was screened)', that the film brought from Germany was screened to an audience of athletes at the Elhamra Theater; the film consisted of two parts, as men's sports and women's sports, and that physical training, athletics, swimming, rowing, football, wrestling, boxing, ski sports, fencing, and alpinism activities were introduced. It was also reported in the news that the film was interpreted by Abraham during the screening as it was a silent film (Spor filimi, 1935).
In other news published in 1935, it was announced that a sports film would be screened in the university and that Abraham would narrate to the audience during the screening (Üniversitede, 1935). Again, in other news dated 1936, it was stated that a sports film screening would be organized in a big theater of the period by Turkey Training Community Alliance (Bir spor, 1936). It was also stated that the film depicting the German preparations for the Olympics as of the year 1936, as well as sports branches and sports fields, would be screened in Bursa and Izmir after Ankara and Istanbul (Güzel bir spor, 1936).
Abraham's view that a one-year seminar should be held to meet the need for trainers was realized shortly after the opening of the department of physical education in Gazi Institute. With the TICI replaced by the Turkish Sports Association in 1936 and the notion of 'sports for the mass' gaining ground (Akın, 2014), a six-month course was organized in 1938 to train sports coaches and trainers to be assigned for different sports regions across the country (Ankarada yerli, 1937;Spor eğitmenleri, 1938). In that first course, followed by similar courses in the subsequent years, the trainees who received theoretical and practical courses were assigned duties in various parts of the country (Korkmaz & Bağırgan, 2019).
Recep Peker submitted Abraham's report to Aziz Koryürek, the deputy of the province of Erzurum and the General President of the TICI, requesting the organization of a program for the implementation of the recommendations detailed in the report and asking to be notified of the process. Subsequently, a rough budget was prepared with a simple architectural program including the construction of safety shelters and marking of roads in line with Abraham's suggestions, which were then submitted to Peker in form of a report. On the other hand, a review of the official correspondence in the State Archives reveals that the arrangements envisaged in Uludağ were started in line with Abraham's report, yet without setting a legal or institutional framework and without a zoning plan. The ski house was opened in December 1935, and later renovated, arranged, and repaired in different periods until the 1950s. Students of Gazi Institute of Education took ski lessons there (Kaya, 2016). Herbert Riedel arrived in Turkey in 1933, and stayed until 1939(Kirste, 1998Schäffer Borrman, 1998;Şen, 2020). In fact, Riedel's mission in Turkey started when Altrock, who received an invitation from the Higher Institute of Agriculture in Ankara, sent Riedel instead (Kirste, 1998). Riedel, who stated that Herman Altrock wrote related reports, also indicated that Altrock facilitated the establishment of a new sports institute in Ankara School of Agriculture in conformity with conditions of the period. Although it was claimed both by Riedel and in other sources that Altrock also presented a report on physical education and sports, the report in question has not been brought to light yet (Riedel, 1942;Akın, 2014).

Physical education and sports in Herbert Riedel's report
During his time here, he worked in a wide range from running the national ski team to his position at Ankara Higher Agriculture Institute, to his sports broadcasting. During his time in Turkey, Riedel also carried out a study on the structuring of the physical education college, and he published this study as a report among the publications of the Higher Agricultural Institute (Riedel, 1939). According to Riedel, the aim of the institute consisted of organizing the physical education of the whole nation in order to be suitable for health education, love of work, ability to work, and military.
The Institute must have a scientific and applied position to fulfill this task. His job would be to research, practice, teach, and oversee their effects. In order to achieve this aim, the institute should train agricultural associations, traveling teachers and even the educational forces of other schools, if possible, so that the nation can achieve as homogeneous physical ability as possible in terms of military service, by cooperating with the military authorities.
Riedel stated that the institute should include two branches for study and practical teaching. The duties of the examination branch were as follows: to prepare the cultural principles of physical education in the highest education institution of the country, develop the education practically and methodically in accordance with biological laws, examine the technical issues related to the construction of training grounds, the construction of school and public training grounds, be an expert for those who ask opinions and thoughts from official authorities, establish a high advisory authority, at the same time, examine the materials required for the production of sports equipment and to investigate whether the sports equipment was useful for this purpose, and inspect the damage caused by use in order to make corrections and modifications. This was possible by creating a technical collection that included examples of training grounds, materials, tools, and equipment. According to Riedel, in this way, sports equipment and the equipment industry and trade with a strong manufacturing power in terms of national economy will be created and these will be trade areas for the Asian back area.
Riedel stated that the results obtained on the health control and development of young people should be examined in the medical branch. The relationship between physical education nutrition and sanitation and their practical application on education and public education were among the duties of the medical branch. The benefit to be derived from the results of the relationship between population and ability to function was extremely important for the nation's overall defense capability. According to Riedel, the issue of public health in cities and especially in villages, as well as regular physical activity and its organizational development, was a special task of the medical branch of the institute of physical education.
According to Riedel, the work of the practical teaching branch should be aimed at educating the future gymnastics powers of all school types. The physical education teacher to be trained should fully know the winter physical training exercises with the most used reciprocal games, such as light athletics exercises, instrumental gymnastics, swimming, rowing, boxing, and fencing. He should know all of the rich forms of gymnastics in order to give the body the most perfect development opportunity by combining gymnastics and sports training in a meaningful way. Maintaining this situation needed to vary in form and quantity according to the age of the students, and they must be differentiated from the purely military physical training exercises. The main aim of the institute should be to train people who have been trained in the same way as possible and who can work physically. According to the experience in Germany, the most appropriate period for gymnastics training is 4 years. However, at the beginning, 3 years is sufficient. Riedel stated that another task of the practice branch would be to organize physical training in order to prepare all of the students for future chief-officers. For this, the person exercising must have a talent in the sports field, which he can choose according to his organism and ability. Weapons training should be given by military teachers once a standard capability has been achieved. According to Riedel, one of the tasks of this branch would be to create a public gymnastics movement by educating heads of society, gymnastics, and sports associations. These presidents should be called from their hometowns to attend short-term courses and trained to form sports associations in their hometowns.
According to Riedel, through this branch, it should be aimed to create a national team for the Olympic games, raise the people in a healthy lifestyle, increase national health, and acquire the talent and love of work that can do greater work. In addition, special courses should be opened to teach the science of modern physical education and show the way it is applied to doctors, nurses, teachers, and civil servants who are assigned or operating in provincial and district centers.

Effects of Riedel's report on Turkish physical education and sports
When Riedel's report was examined, it was seen that a sports school model was created in detail, and many details from institute departments, who would benefit, from the course content to the school duration, were discussed. It should be noted that Riedel, who performed duty at Ankara Higher Institute of Agriculture for many years, managed to implement the plan he contemplated for the school of physical education and sports there, albeit partially.
In addition to practical courses in the field of physical education and sports, theoretical courses such as 'history of physical training', 'launching physical education areas', 'massage', 'physical training hygiene', 'first aid in accidents' were also included in the curriculum at the Higher Institute of Agriculture (Akman, 1978). Furthermore, the teams started and athletes trained by Riedel under the umbrella of the Higher Institute of Agriculture actively participated in various competitions and events. The Institute trained performance athletes in many branches, such as shooting, fencing, and athletics (Ankara yüksek, 1943;Spor hareketleri, 1944).
Riedel, like Abraham, who stayed in Turkey for a long time, wrote and published articles on the dissemination, understanding, and teaching of physical education (Riedel, 1935a;Riedel, 1935b;Riedel, 1938). Riedel collected his views and observations on physical education and sports in Turkey in his book titled 'Leibesübungen und körperliche erziehung in der osmanischen und kamalistischen türkei', which was published in 1942. Riedel mentioned in his book that the Turkish Government received the opinions of German experts (Prof. Altrock, Dr. Diem, Prof. March), even though the architect of the Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadium was an Italian. He stated that he and Kurt Dainas, another German instructor who worked in the Division of Physical Education of Gazi Institute for Education, were often called upon to give advice. Riedel also noted that the governor of Ankara commissioned him to provide training for Kerim Bey for two years as the stadium manager. Moreover, Riedel reported that the sports fields of the Higher Institute of Agriculture in Ankara were built between 1935 and 1939 after Riedel and Herman Altrock were consulted for their opinions (Riedel, 1942). Riedel made significant contributions to the recognition of sports and the development of sports literature and introduced sports branches with his publications on sports among the publications of the Higher Institute of Agriculture, as well as his articles in newspapers and magazines.

CONCLUSION
In the early period of Turkey, which was on the path to creating new people and new citizens, when the people living within certain borders with the nation state created the new power of the state, creating a 'strong' generation was seen as a means of strengthening and protecting the state. Therefore, sports policies were shaped with the aim of improving the population qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The aim of the German sports movement, which emerged from the aim of establishing a German nation state, aimed to develop the 'power of the nation' (Pfister, 2009) and to be strong rather than better performance, unlike modern sports, overlapped with these goals.
Having started with von der Goltz and von Hoff in the last period of the Ottoman Empire, German influence also continued in the republican period. German experts were generally invited, since the experts who carried out the modernization on the basis of the German model in the last period of the Ottoman Empire, the majority of whom were educated in Germany and adopted the German system, were in managerial and decision-making positions after the proclamation of the republic (Nicolai, 1998). Among those invited were German sports scientists to organize the field of physical education and sports. In the 1930s, when a more systematic approach to mass sports was developed, German sports scientists were invited. In this period, carrying out mass sports education and training required the training of physical education teachers and trainers to work in schools and clubs.
When the reports given were examined, it was seen that they were shaped to meet certain expectations, such as protecting the homeland, being productive in the economy, and restoring the race by beautifying and strengthening it when necessary for political, social, economic, and eugenic reasons. As in the German sports movement, instead of professional/competitive sports, sports were handled in a way that would contribute to nationalization, and the issues of power and homeland defense, health and eugenics, entertainment and socialization, international representation and propaganda were all melted into the sports pot. The three-year period of education, which was recommended as the physical education teacher training period, was implemented for many years; however, after the 1980s, the period of education was increased to four years.
While it took years for the school of physical education and sports to be established, which was addressed as a significant topic in the reports, teachers were trained with long-term courses opened during this period. Management of the courses was assumed by instructors such as Cemal Gökdağ, in constant dialogue with experts such as Diem and Riedel, who were trained in the German system. The courses, with their curricula elaborately planned for the long term, proved beneficial for the training of physical education teachers and coaches.
Furthermore, students were sent from Turkey to Germany to study physical education in the 1930s when German sports experts were often invited to and performed missions in Turkey 4 (Altunya, 2006). This period under German influence was described as follows by Riedel (1942: p. 81): "Healthy body culture nurtured with pure German influence since 1933 had grown visibly. Turkey has made so much progress in almost 10 years that it has come to a position to waive expertise of foreign experts".
What made this period special was the attempt to give direction to physical education and sports in Turkey, similar to the understanding in Germany. German experts, such as Diem and Riedel, who founded the Cologne and Berlin sports academies in Germany and organizationally recreated the concept of event and club management in the field of sports management, performed activities to launch a similar system in Turkey. In this context, although the famous sportsmen, who we can define as the founders of German sports in the early republican period, took part as a guide in Turkish sports, when we examined today's sports approaches in Germany and Turkey, it was observed that the sports thought shaped by the same thinkers developed in different ways. This situation should be seen as an indicator that reflects the perception, internalization level, and dimensions of the sports understanding of the two communities.